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1Department of Industrial Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan, Korea
2Faculty of Industrial Design Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherland
3Department of Industrial Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, Ulsan, Korea
4Thyroscope Inc., Ulsan, Korea
5Department of Internal Medicine, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seongnam, Korea
6Department of Surgery, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seongnam, Korea
7Department of Nuclear Medicine, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seongnam, Korea
Copyright © 2021 Korean Endocrine Society
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Conception or design: J.H.M. Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: K.H.K., J.L., C.H.A., H.W.Y., J.Y.C., H.Y.L., W.W.L., J.H.M. Drafting the work or revising: K.H.K., J.H.M. Final approval of the manuscript: K.H.K., J.L., C.H.A., H.W.Y., J.Y.C., H.Y.L., W.W.L., J.H.M.
Characteristic | Hypothyroidism (n=30) | Control (n=14) | P value |
---|---|---|---|
Age, yr | 38.1±8.4 | 42.4±7.4 | 0.112a |
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Sex | |||
Male | 15 (50.0) | 2 (14.3) | 0.044b |
Female | 15 (50.0) | 12 (85.7) | |
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Body mass index, kg/m2 | 25.2±4.6 | 23.2±4.8 | 0.204a |
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Systolic blood pressure, mm Hg | 127.4±12.5 | 122.7±9.4 | 0.221a |
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Diastolic blood pressure, mm Hg | 77.9±10.2 | 72.8±10.2 | 0.130a |
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On-site rHR, bpm | 74.0±9.5 | 73.4±9.9 | 0.850a |
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Thyroid function test | |||
Free T4, ng/dL | 1.32±0.24 | 1.37±0.14 | 0.470a |
TSH, mIU/L | 1.91 (1.27) | 1.44 (0.95) | 0.332c |
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Glucose, mg/dL | 97.9±22.9 | 93.7±7.2 | 0.514a |
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BUN, mg/dL | 14.5±10.8 | 12.1±3.9 | 0.434a |
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Creatinine, mg/dL | 0.74±0.18 | 0.64±0.09 | 0.049a |
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Total cholesterol, mg/dL | 181.3±32.3 | 172.1±32.9 | 0.389a |
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Total protein, g/dL | 7.3±0.4 | 7.4±0.6 | 0.637a |
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|||
Albumin, g/dL | 4.4±0.3 | 4.3±0.4 | 0.885a |
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|||
AST, mg/dL | 23.5±8.1 | 23.4±4.6 | 0.940a |
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ALT, mg/dL | 24.9±16.7 | 22.9±9.9 | 0.685a |
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WBC, no/mm3 | 6,838±1,966 | 5,049±2,384 | 0.023a |
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Hemoglobin, mg/dL | 13.8±1.8 | 13.2±1.0 | 0.190a |
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Platelet, no/mm3 | 283±56 | 281±61 | 0.913a |
Values are expressed as mean±standard deviation, number (%), or median (interquartile range).
rHR, resting heart rate; bpm, beats per minute; T4, thyroxine; TSH, thyroid stimulating hormone; BUN, blood urea nitrogen; AST, aspartate aminotransferase; ALT, alanine aminotransferase; WBC, white blood cell.
a Derived from Student’s t test;
b Derived from Fisher exact probability test;
c Derived from Mann-Whitney U test.
TFT results and associated parameters | Visit 1 | Visit 2 | Visit 3 | P value (Visit 1 vs. 2)a | P value (Visit 2 vs. 3)b |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hypothyroidism group, n | 24 | 30 | 23 | - | - |
Free T4, ng/dL | 1.73±0.25 | 0.08±0.06 | 1.58±0.31 | <0.001c | <0.001c |
TSH, mIU/L | 0.25 (1.54) | 84.1 (49.3) | 0.17 (1.45) | <0.001d | <0.001d |
Zulewski’s clinical score | 1 (2) | 1 (2) | 1 (2) | 0.040d | 0.360d |
On-site rHR, bpm | 85.5±10.7 | 73.0±10.8 | 83.4±11.7 | <0.001c | 0.022c |
WD-rHR, bpm | 68.9±8.9 | 60.2±6.4 | 68.0±6.9 | <0.001c | <0.001c |
WD-sleepHR, bpm | 62.8±9.7 | 55.3±6.1 | 62.8±7.3 | <0.001c | <0.001c |
WD-2to6HR, bpm | 64.6±8.8 | 56.7±6.7 | 63.7±6.6 | <0.001c | <0.001c |
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Control group, n | 12 | 14 | 8 | - | - |
Free T4, ng/dL | 1.69±0.20 | 1.56±0.18 | 1.68±0.33 | 0.072c | 0.538c |
TSH, mIU/L | 0.26 (0.61) | 157.63 (50.61) | 0.11 (0.36) | 0.002d | 0.012d |
Zulewski’s clinical score | 2 (2) | 2 (1) | 1.5 (2) | 0.589d | 0.705d |
On-site rHR, bpm | 85.3±14.4 | 80.0±12.5 | 83.9±11.6 | 0.312c | 0.302c |
WD-rHR, bpm | 67.3±7.2 | 63.6±6.8 | 67.0±6.1 | 0.019c | 0.062c |
WD-sleepHR, bpm | 63.6±6.5 | 60.2±6.9 | 63.7±6.5 | 0.004c | 0.022c |
WD-2to6HR, bpm | 63.8±6.2 | 60.5±7.2 | 63.1±6.4 | 0.017c | 0.069c |
Values are expressed as mean±standard deviation or median (interquartile range).
TFT, thyroid function test; T4, thyroxine; TSH, thyroid stimulating hormone; rHR, resting heart rate; bpm, beats per minute; WD-rHR, rHR from wearable device; WD-sleepHR, HR during sleep from wearable device; WD-2to6HR, HR from 2:00 AM to 6:00 AM from wearable device.
a P value of statistical equality tests between Visit 1 and 2;
b P value of statistical equality tests between Visit 2 and 3;
c Derived from paired t test;
d Derived from Wilcoxon signed-rank test.
HR parametera | Coefficient | SE | 95% CI | P value | QIC |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
On-site rHR | 0.213 | 0.059 | 0.098–0.327 | <0.001 | 112.722 |
WD-rHR | 0.205 | 0.051 | 0.105–0.305 | <0.001 | 112.620 |
WD-sleepHR | 0.247 | 0.056 | 0.137–0.357 | <0.001 | 112.272 |
WD-2to6HR | 0.201 | 0.057 | 0.089–0.313 | <0.001 | 112.414 |
Each regression model had serum free T4 as its dependent variable and a HR parameter as a predictor. Age, gender, and body mass index were included as covariates.
T4, thyroxine; HR, heart rate; SE, standard error; CI, confidence interval; QIC, quasi-information criterion; rHR, resting heart rate; WD-rHR, rHR from wearable device; WD-sleepHR, HR during sleep from wearable device; WD-2to6HR, HR from 2:00 AM to 6:00 AM from wearable device.
a HR parameters were standardized (mean, 0; SD, 1).
HR parametera | Coefficient (OR) | SE | 95% CI | P value | QIC |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
On-site rHR | 0.630 (1.878) | 0.238 | 0.164–1.096 | 0.008 | 123.517 |
WD-rHR | 0.942 (2.565) | 0.280 | 0.393–1.491 | <0.001 | 120.124 |
WD-sleepHR | 0.859 (2.358) | 0.241 | 0.387–1.331 | <0.001 | 119.764 |
WD-2to6HR | 0.806 (2.239) | 0.255 | 0.306–1.306 | 0.002 | 120.691 |
Each regression model had hypothyroidism as its dependent variable and a HR parameter as a predictor. Age, gender, and body mass index were included as covariates.
HR, heart rate; OR, odds ratio; SE, standard error; CI, confidence interval; QIC, quasi-information criterion; rHR, resting heart rate; WD-rHR, rHR from wearable device; WD-sleepHR, HR during sleep from wearable device; WD-2to6HR, HR from 2:00 AM to 6:00 AM from wearable device.
a HR parameters were standardized (mean, 0; SD, 1) and multiplied by –1 to see the OR of hypothyroidism when a parameter decreases by its one standard deviation.
Characteristic | Hypothyroidism (n=30) | Control (n=14) | P value |
---|---|---|---|
Age, yr | 38.1±8.4 | 42.4±7.4 | 0.112 |
| |||
Sex | |||
Male | 15 (50.0) | 2 (14.3) | 0.044 |
Female | 15 (50.0) | 12 (85.7) | |
| |||
Body mass index, kg/m2 | 25.2±4.6 | 23.2±4.8 | 0.204 |
| |||
Systolic blood pressure, mm Hg | 127.4±12.5 | 122.7±9.4 | 0.221 |
| |||
Diastolic blood pressure, mm Hg | 77.9±10.2 | 72.8±10.2 | 0.130 |
| |||
On-site rHR, bpm | 74.0±9.5 | 73.4±9.9 | 0.850 |
| |||
Thyroid function test | |||
Free T4, ng/dL | 1.32±0.24 | 1.37±0.14 | 0.470 |
TSH, mIU/L | 1.91 (1.27) | 1.44 (0.95) | 0.332 |
| |||
Glucose, mg/dL | 97.9±22.9 | 93.7±7.2 | 0.514 |
| |||
BUN, mg/dL | 14.5±10.8 | 12.1±3.9 | 0.434 |
| |||
Creatinine, mg/dL | 0.74±0.18 | 0.64±0.09 | 0.049 |
| |||
Total cholesterol, mg/dL | 181.3±32.3 | 172.1±32.9 | 0.389 |
| |||
Total protein, g/dL | 7.3±0.4 | 7.4±0.6 | 0.637 |
| |||
Albumin, g/dL | 4.4±0.3 | 4.3±0.4 | 0.885 |
| |||
AST, mg/dL | 23.5±8.1 | 23.4±4.6 | 0.940 |
| |||
ALT, mg/dL | 24.9±16.7 | 22.9±9.9 | 0.685 |
| |||
WBC, no/mm3 | 6,838±1,966 | 5,049±2,384 | 0.023 |
| |||
Hemoglobin, mg/dL | 13.8±1.8 | 13.2±1.0 | 0.190 |
| |||
Platelet, no/mm3 | 283±56 | 281±61 | 0.913 |
TFT results and associated parameters | Visit 1 | Visit 2 | Visit 3 | P value (Visit 1 vs. 2) |
P value (Visit 2 vs. 3) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hypothyroidism group, n | 24 | 30 | 23 | - | - |
Free T4, ng/dL | 1.73±0.25 | 0.08±0.06 | 1.58±0.31 | <0.001 |
<0.001 |
TSH, mIU/L | 0.25 (1.54) | 84.1 (49.3) | 0.17 (1.45) | <0.001 |
<0.001 |
Zulewski’s clinical score | 1 (2) | 1 (2) | 1 (2) | 0.040 |
0.360 |
On-site rHR, bpm | 85.5±10.7 | 73.0±10.8 | 83.4±11.7 | <0.001 |
0.022 |
WD-rHR, bpm | 68.9±8.9 | 60.2±6.4 | 68.0±6.9 | <0.001 |
<0.001 |
WD-sleepHR, bpm | 62.8±9.7 | 55.3±6.1 | 62.8±7.3 | <0.001 |
<0.001 |
WD-2to6HR, bpm | 64.6±8.8 | 56.7±6.7 | 63.7±6.6 | <0.001 |
<0.001 |
| |||||
Control group, n | 12 | 14 | 8 | - | - |
Free T4, ng/dL | 1.69±0.20 | 1.56±0.18 | 1.68±0.33 | 0.072 |
0.538 |
TSH, mIU/L | 0.26 (0.61) | 157.63 (50.61) | 0.11 (0.36) | 0.002 |
0.012 |
Zulewski’s clinical score | 2 (2) | 2 (1) | 1.5 (2) | 0.589 |
0.705 |
On-site rHR, bpm | 85.3±14.4 | 80.0±12.5 | 83.9±11.6 | 0.312 |
0.302 |
WD-rHR, bpm | 67.3±7.2 | 63.6±6.8 | 67.0±6.1 | 0.019 |
0.062 |
WD-sleepHR, bpm | 63.6±6.5 | 60.2±6.9 | 63.7±6.5 | 0.004 |
0.022 |
WD-2to6HR, bpm | 63.8±6.2 | 60.5±7.2 | 63.1±6.4 | 0.017 |
0.069 |
HR parameter |
Coefficient | SE | 95% CI | P value | QIC |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
On-site rHR | 0.213 | 0.059 | 0.098–0.327 | <0.001 | 112.722 |
WD-rHR | 0.205 | 0.051 | 0.105–0.305 | <0.001 | 112.620 |
WD-sleepHR | 0.247 | 0.056 | 0.137–0.357 | <0.001 | 112.272 |
WD-2to6HR | 0.201 | 0.057 | 0.089–0.313 | <0.001 | 112.414 |
HR parameter |
Coefficient (OR) | SE | 95% CI | P value | QIC |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
On-site rHR | 0.630 (1.878) | 0.238 | 0.164–1.096 | 0.008 | 123.517 |
WD-rHR | 0.942 (2.565) | 0.280 | 0.393–1.491 | <0.001 | 120.124 |
WD-sleepHR | 0.859 (2.358) | 0.241 | 0.387–1.331 | <0.001 | 119.764 |
WD-2to6HR | 0.806 (2.239) | 0.255 | 0.306–1.306 | 0.002 | 120.691 |
Values are expressed as mean±standard deviation, number (%), or median (interquartile range). rHR, resting heart rate; bpm, beats per minute; T4, thyroxine; TSH, thyroid stimulating hormone; BUN, blood urea nitrogen; AST, aspartate aminotransferase; ALT, alanine aminotransferase; WBC, white blood cell. Derived from Student’s Derived from Fisher exact probability test; Derived from Mann-Whitney
Values are expressed as mean±standard deviation or median (interquartile range). TFT, thyroid function test; T4, thyroxine; TSH, thyroid stimulating hormone; rHR, resting heart rate; bpm, beats per minute; WD-rHR, rHR from wearable device; WD-sleepHR, HR during sleep from wearable device; WD-2to6HR, HR from 2:00 AM to 6:00 AM from wearable device. Derived from paired Derived from Wilcoxon signed-rank test.
Each regression model had serum free T4 as its dependent variable and a HR parameter as a predictor. Age, gender, and body mass index were included as covariates. T4, thyroxine; HR, heart rate; SE, standard error; CI, confidence interval; QIC, quasi-information criterion; rHR, resting heart rate; WD-rHR, rHR from wearable device; WD-sleepHR, HR during sleep from wearable device; WD-2to6HR, HR from 2:00 AM to 6:00 AM from wearable device. HR parameters were standardized (mean, 0; SD, 1).
Each regression model had hypothyroidism as its dependent variable and a HR parameter as a predictor. Age, gender, and body mass index were included as covariates. HR, heart rate; OR, odds ratio; SE, standard error; CI, confidence interval; QIC, quasi-information criterion; rHR, resting heart rate; WD-rHR, rHR from wearable device; WD-sleepHR, HR during sleep from wearable device; WD-2to6HR, HR from 2:00 AM to 6:00 AM from wearable device. HR parameters were standardized (mean, 0; SD, 1) and multiplied by –1 to see the OR of hypothyroidism when a parameter decreases by its one standard deviation.