Obesity is a significant risk factor for health issues like type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. It often proves resistant to traditional lifestyle interventions, prompting a need for more precise therapeutic strategies. This has led to a focus on signaling pathways and neuroendocrine mechanisms to develop targeted obesity treatments. Recent developments in obesity management have been revolutionized by introducing novel glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) based drugs, such as semaglutide and tirzepatide. These drugs are part of an emerging class of nutrient-stimulated hormone-based therapeutics, acting as incretin mimetics to target G-protein–coupled receptors like GLP-1, glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), and glucagon. These receptors are vital in regulating body fat and energy balance. The development of multiagonists, including GLP-1–glucagon and GIP–GLP-1–glucagon receptor agonists, especially with the potential for glucagon receptor activation, marks a significant advancement in the field. This review covers the development and clinical efficacy of various GLP-1-based therapeutics, exploring the challenges and future directions in obesity management.
Background Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) reportedly have protective effects on pancreatic β-cells; however, the underlying mechanisms are unknown.
Methods To investigate the cellular mechanism of PUFA-induced cell protection, mouse insulinoma 6 (MIN6) cells were cultured with palmitic acid (PA) and/or docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and alterations in cellular signaling and apoptosis were examined.
Results DHA treatment remarkably repressed caspase-3 cleavage and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated UTP nick end labeling (TUNEL)-positive red dot signals in PA-treated MIN6 cells, with upregulation of autophagy, an increase in microtubule- associated protein 1-light chain 3 (LC3)-II, autophagy-related 5 (Atg5), and decreased p62. Upstream factors involved in autophagy regulation (Beclin-1, unc51 like autophagy activating kinase 1 [ULK1], phosphorylated mammalian target of rapamycin [mTOR], and protein kinase B) were also altered by DHA treatment. DHA specifically induced phosphorylation on S2448 in mTOR; however, phosphorylation on S2481 decreased. The role of G protein-coupled receptor 120 (GPR120) in the effect of DHA was demonstrated using a GPR120 agonist and antagonist. Additional treatment with AH7614, a GPR120 antagonist, significantly attenuated DHA-induced autophagy and protection. Taken together, DHA-induced autophagy activation with protection against PA-induced apoptosis mediated by the GPR120/mTOR axis.
Conclusion These findings indicate that DHA has therapeutic effects on PA-induced pancreatic β-cells, and that the cellular mechanism of β-cell protection by DHA may be a new research target with potential pharmacotherapeutic implications in β-cell protection.
This review intends to provide the reader with a practical overview of several (patho)physiological conditions in which knowledge of the interplay between growth hormone (GH), insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), and insulin is important. This might help treating physicians in making the right decisions on how to intervene and improve metabolism for the benefit of patients, and to understand why and how metabolism responds in their specific cases. We will specifically address the interplay between GH, IGF-1, and insulin in type 1 and 2 diabetes mellitus, liver cirrhosis, and acromegaly as examples in which this knowledge is truly necessary.
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Since our discovery in 2006 that acromegaly is associated with an increased risk of vertebral fractures, many authors have confirmed this finding in both cross-sectional and prospective studies. Due to the high epidemiological and clinical impact of this newly discovered comorbidity of acromegaly, this topic has progressively become more important and prominent over the years, and the pertinent literature has been enriched by new findings on the pathophysiology and treatment. The aim of this narrative review was to discuss these novel findings, integrating them with the seminal observations, in order to give the reader an updated view of how the field of acromegaly and bone is developing, from strong clinical observations to a mechanistic understanding and possible prevention and treatment.
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Although pancreatic endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK) is indispensable to beta cells, low-dose PERK inhibitor improved glucose- stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) and hyperglycemia in diabetic mice. Current study examined if partial deletion of Perk (Perk+/-) recapitulated the effects of PERK inhibitor, on the contrary to the complete deletion. Perk+/- mice and wild-type controls were fed with a high-fat diet (HFD) for 23 weeks. Glucose tolerance was evaluated along with serum insulin levels and islet morphology. Perk+/- mice on normal chow were comparable to wild-type mice in various metabolic features. HFD-induced obesity was not influenced by Perk reduction; however, HFD-induced glucose intolerance was significantly improved since 15-week HFD. HFD-induced compromises in GSIS were relieved by Perk reduction, accompanied by reductions in phosphorylated PERK and activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) in the islets. Meanwhile, HFD-induced islet expansion was not significantly affected. In summary, partial deletion of Perk improved glucose tolerance and GSIS impaired by diet-induced obesity, without changes in body weights or islet mass.
Background While the triglyceride-glucose (TyG) index is a measure of insulin resistance, its association with cardiovascular disease (CVD) has not been well elucidated. We evaluated the TyG index for prediction of CVDs in a prospective large communitybased cohort.
Methods Individuals 40 to 70 years old were prospectively followed for a median 15.6 years. The TyG index was calculated as the Ln [fasting triglycerides (mg/dL)×fasting glucose (mg/dL)/2]. CVDs included any acute myocardial infarction, coronary artery disease or cerebrovascular disease. We used a Cox proportional hazards model to estimate CVD risks according to quartiles of the TyG index and plotted the receiver operating characteristics curve for the incident CVD.
Results Among 8,511 subjects (age 51.9±8.8 years; 47.5% males), 931 (10.9%) had incident CVDs during the follow-up. After adjustment for age, sex, body mass index, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, total cholesterol, smoking, alcohol, exercise, and C-reactive protein, subjects in the highest TyG quartile had 36% increased risk of incident CVD compared with the lowest TyG quartile (hazard ratio, 1.36; 95% confidence interval, 1.10 to 1.68). Carotid plaque, assessed by ultrasonography was more frequent in subjects in the higher quartile of TyG index (P for trend=0.049 in men and P for trend <0.001 in women). The TyG index had a higher predictive power for CVDs than the homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) (area under the curve, 0.578 for TyG and 0.543 for HOMA-IR). Adding TyG index on diabetes or hypertension alone gave sounder predictability for CVDs.
Conclusion The TyG index is independently associated with future CVDs in 16 years of follow-up in large, prospective Korean cohort.
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To maintain normal glucose homeostasis after a meal, it is essential to secrete an adequate amount of insulin from pancreatic β-cells. However, if pancreatic β-cells solely depended on the blood glucose level for insulin secretion, a surge in blood glucose levels would be inevitable after the ingestion of a large amount of carbohydrates. To avoid a deluge of glucose in the bloodstream after a large carbohydrate- rich meal, enteroendocrine cells detect the amount of nutrient absorption from the gut lumen and secrete incretin hormones at scale. Since insulin secretion in response to incretin hormones occurs only in a hyperglycemic milieu, pancreatic β-cells can secrete a “Goldilocks” amount of insulin (i.e., not too much and not too little) to keep the blood glucose level in the normal range. In this regard, pancreatic β-cell sensitivity to glucose and incretin hormones is crucial for maintaining normal glucose homeostasis. In this Namgok lecture 2022, we review the effects of current anti-diabetic medications on pancreatic β-cell sensitivity to glucose and incretin hormones.
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Original Articles
Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism Big Data Articles (National Health Insurance Service Database)
Background The severity of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. We aimed to generate a risk model for predicting insulin-requiring GDM before pregnancy in Korean women.
Methods A total of 417,210 women who received a health examination within 52 weeks before pregnancy and delivered between 2011 and 2015 were recruited from the Korean National Health Insurance database. The risk prediction model was created using a sample of 70% of the participants, while the remaining 30% were used for internal validation. Risk scores were assigned based on the hazard ratios for each risk factor in the multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression model. Six risk variables were selected, and a risk nomogram was created to estimate the risk of insulin-requiring GDM.
Results A total of 2,891 (0.69%) women developed insulin-requiring GDM. Age, body mass index (BMI), current smoking, fasting blood glucose (FBG), total cholesterol, and γ-glutamyl transferase were significant risk factors for insulin-requiring GDM and were incorporated into the risk model. Among the variables, old age, high BMI, and high FBG level were the main contributors to an increased risk of insulin-requiring GDM. The concordance index of the risk model for predicting insulin-requiring GDM was 0.783 (95% confidence interval, 0.766 to 0.799). The validation cohort’s incidence rates for insulin-requiring GDM were consistent with the risk model’s predictions.
Conclusion A novel risk engine was generated to predict insulin-requiring GDM among Korean women. This model may provide helpful information for identifying high-risk women and enhancing prepregnancy care.
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Background We aimed to investigate the association of hepatic steatosis with liver fibrosis and to assess the interactive effects of hepatic steatosis and insulin resistance on liver fibrosis in a nationally representative sample of United States adults.
Methods We conducted a cross-sectional analysis using data from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2017 to 2018, which for the first time included transient elastography to assess liver stiffness and hepatic steatosis. We evaluated the association between hepatic steatosis (using controlled attenuation parameter [CAP]) and clinically significant liver fibrosis (defined as liver stiffness ≥7.5 kPa) using logistic regression with an interaction term for hepatic steatosis and insulin resistance (defined as homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance ≥3.0).
Results Among adults undergoing transient elastography (n=2,023), 45.9% had moderate or greater hepatic steatosis and 11.3% had clinically significant liver fibrosis. After adjustment for demographic and metabolic factors, the odds of significant liver fibrosis increased as CAP score rose (odds ratio, 1.35 per standard deviation increment; 95% confidence interval, 1.11 to 1.64). We detected a significant interaction effect between CAP score and insulin resistance on the probability of significant liver fibrosis (P=0.016 for interaction). The probability of significant liver fibrosis increased in the presence of insulin resistance with increasing CAP score, while those without insulin resistance had low probability of significant liver fibrosis, even with high CAP scores.
Conclusion Individuals with hepatic steatosis had higher odds of fibrosis when insulin resistance was present. Our findings emphasize the importance of the metabolic aspects of the disease on fibrosis risk and suggest a need to better identify patients with metabolic associated fatty liver disease.
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Endocrinol Metab. 2022;37(3):444-454. Published online June 3, 2022
Background No consensus exists regarding the early use of subcutaneous (SC) basal insulin facilitating the transition from continuous intravenous insulin infusion (CIII) to multiple SC insulin injections in patients with severe hyperglycemia other than diabetic ketoacidosis. This study evaluated the effect of early co-administration of SC basal insulin with CIII on glucose control in patients with severe hyperglycemia.
Methods Patients who received CIII for the management of severe hyperglycemia were divided into two groups: the early basal insulin group (n=86) if they received the first SC basal insulin 0.25 U/kg body weight within 24 hours of CIII initiation and ≥4 hours before discontinuation, and the delayed basal insulin group (n=79) if they were not classified as the early basal insulin group. Rebound hyperglycemia was defined as blood glucose level of >250 mg/dL in 24 hours following CIII discontinuation. Propensity score matching (PSM) methods were additionally employed for adjusting the confounding factors (n=108).
Results The rebound hyperglycemia incidence was significantly lower in the early basal insulin group than in the delayed basal insulin group (54.7% vs. 86.1%), despite using PSM methods (51.9%, 85.2%). The length of hospital stay was shorter in the early basal insulin group than in the delayed basal insulin group (8.5 days vs. 9.6 days, P=0.027). The hypoglycemia incidence did not differ between the groups.
Conclusion Early co-administration of basal insulin with CIII prevents rebound hyperglycemia and shorten hospital stay without increasing the hypoglycemic events in patients with severe hyperglycemia.
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Background Fibrosis is the most important prognostic factor for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Insulin resistance plays a key role of fibrosis progression. We evaluated the association between changes in homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) values and changes in fibrosis status in NAFLD.
Methods We analyzed the data of 15,728 participants with NAFLD (86% men, mean age 40.5 years) who had no diabetes at baseline and visited our centers for health check-ups both in 2012 and 2016. The participants were classified into four groups according to the degree of change in HOMA-IR values from baseline to the end of follow-up: G1 (<0), G2 (0–0.50), G3 (0.51–1.00), and G4 (>1.00). NAFLD was assessed by ultrasonography, and fibrosis status was evaluated by the NAFLD fibrosis score (NFS) and the aspartate aminotransferase to platelet ratio index (APRI).
Results After the 4-year follow-up, the multivariable-adjusted odds ratio (OR) for progression of fibrosis probability increased with increasing HOMA-IR values (OR, 2.25; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.87 to 2.71 for NFS; and OR, 2.55; 95% CI, 2.05 to 3.18 for APRI, G4). This tendency remained consistent throughout the subgroup analyses, except in those for female sex and a body mass index <25 kg/m2. The OR for regression of fibrosis probability decreased with increasing HOMA-IR values (OR, 0.33; 95% CI, 0.25 to 0.43 for NFS, G4).
Conclusion Changes in HOMA-IR values were associated with changes in fibrosis status in patients with NAFLD without diabetes, which underscores the role of insulin resistance in liver fibrosis.
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Yeliana L. Sánchez, Manuela Yepes-Calderón, Luis Valbuena, Andrés F. Milán, María C. Trillos-Almanza, Sergio Granados, Miguel Peña, Mauricio Estrada-Castrillón, Juan C. Aristizábal, Raúl Narvez-Sanchez, Jaime Gallo-Villegas, Juan C. Calderón
Endocrinol Metab. 2021;36(5):1055-1068. Published online October 21, 2021
Background We studied whether musclin function in humans is related to glycemic control, body composition, and cardiorespiratory capacity.
Methods A cross-sectional study was performed in sedentary adults with or without metabolic syndrome (MS). Serum musclin was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Insulin resistance (IR) was evaluated by the homeostatic model assessment (HOMA-IR). Body composition was determined by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and muscle composition by measuring carnosine in the thigh, a surrogate of fiber types, through proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Cardiorespiratory capacity was assessed through direct ergospirometry.
Results The control (n=29) and MS (n=61) groups were comparable in age (51.5±6.5 years old vs. 50.7±6.1 years old), sex (72.4% vs. 70.5% women), total lean mass (58.5%±7.4% vs. 57.3%±6.8%), and peak oxygen consumption (VOpeak) (31.0±5.8 mL O2./kg.min vs. 29.2±6.3 mL O2/kg.min). Individuals with MS had higher body mass index (BMI) (30.6±4.0 kg/m2 vs. 27.4± 3.6 kg/m2), HOMA-IR (3.5 [95% confidence interval, CI, 2.9 to 4.6] vs. 1.7 [95% CI, 1.1 to 2.0]), and musclin (206.7 pg/mL [95% CI, 122.7 to 387.8] vs. 111.1 pg/mL [95% CI, 63.2 to 218.5]) values than controls (P˂0.05). Musclin showed a significant relationship with HOMA-IR (β=0.23; 95% CI, 0.12 to 0.33; P˂0.01), but not with VOpeak, in multiple linear regression models adjusted for age, sex, fat mass, lean mass, and physical activity. Musclin was significantly associated with insulin, glycemia, visceral fat, and regional muscle mass, but not with BMI, VCO2peak, maximum heart rate, maximum time of work, or carnosine.
Conclusion In humans, musclin positively correlates with insulinemia, IR, and a body composition profile with high visceral adiposity and lean mass, but low body fat percentage. Musclin is not related to BMI or cardiorespiratory capacity.
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Background Weight loss through lifestyle modification is recommended for patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Recent studies have suggested that repeated loss and gain of weight is associated with worse health outcomes. This study aimed to examine the association between weight variability and the risk of NAFLD in patients without diabetes.
Methods We examined the health-checkup data of 30,708 participants who had undergone serial examinations between 2010 and 2014. Weight variability was assessed using coefficient of variation and the average successive variability of weight (ASVW), which was defined as the sum of absolute weight changes between successive years over the 5-year period divided by 4. The participants were classified according to the baseline body mass index and weight difference over 4 years.
Results On dividing the participants into four groups according to ASVW quartile groups, those in the highest quartile showed a significantly increased risk of NAFLD compared to those in the lowest quartile (odds ratio [OR], 1.89; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.63 to 2.19). Among participants without obesity at baseline, individuals with high ASVW showed increased risk of NAFLD (OR, 1.80; 95% CI, 1.61 to 2.01). Participants with increased weight over 4 years and high ASVW demonstrated higher risk of NAFLD compared to those with stable weight and low ASVW (OR, 4.87; 95% CI, 4.29 to 5.53).
Conclusion Regardless of participant baseline obesity status, high weight variability was associated with an increased risk of developing NAFLD. Our results suggest that further effort is required to minimize weight fluctuations after achieving a desirable body weight.
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Background The guanine nucleotide-binding protein, alpha stimulating (GNAS) gene has been associated with growth hormone (GH)-secreting pituitary adenoma. We investigated the prevalence of GNAS mutations in Korean patients with acromegaly and assessed whether mutation status correlated with biochemical or clinical characteristics.
Methods We studied 126 patients with acromegaly who underwent surgery between 2005 and 2014 at Severance Hospital. We performed GNAS gene analysis and evaluated age, sex, hormone levels, postoperative biochemical remission, and immunohistochemical staining results of the tumor.
Results GNAS mutations were present in 75 patients (59.5%). Patients with and without GNAS mutations showed similar age distribution and Knosp classification. The proportion of female patients was 76.5% and 48.0% in the GNAS-negative and GNAS-mutation groups, respectively (P=0.006). In immunohistochemical staining, the GNAS-mutation group showed higher GH expression in pituitary tumor tissues than the mutation-negative group (98.7% vs. 92.2%, P=0.015). Patients with GNAS mutations had higher preoperative insulin-like growth factor-1 levels (791.3 ng/mL vs. 697.0 ng/mL, P=0.045) and lower immediate postoperative basal (0.9 ng/mL vs. 1.0 ng/mL, P=0.191) and nadir GH levels (0.3 ng/mL vs. 0.6 ng/mL, P=0.012) in oral glucose tolerance tests. Finally, the GNAS-mutation group showed significantly higher surgical remission rates than the mutation-negative group, both at 1 week and 6 months after surgical resection (70.7% vs. 54.9%, P=0.011; 85.3% vs. 82.4%, P=0.007, respectively).
Conclusion GNAS mutations in GH-secreting pituitary tumors are associated with higher preoperative insulin-like growth factor-1 levels and surgical remission rates and lower immediate postoperative nadir GH levels. Thus, GNAS mutation status can predict surgical responsiveness in patients with acromegaly.
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