In the current era of effective antiretroviral therapies (ARTs), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection became a chronic disorder that requires long term follow-up. Among other medical issues, these patients may develop endocrine problems, specific to HIV infection and its treatment. The purpose of this review is to give an overview of common endocrine complications associated with HIV infection, and to propose diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. HIV can affect the endocrine system at several levels. Adrenal and gonadal dysfunction, osteoporosis with increased fracture risk, dyslipidemia with increased cardiovascular risk, are some of the endocrine disorders prevalent in HIV-infected patients that may negatively influence quality of life, and increase morbidity and mortality. While ARTs have dramatically increased life expectancy in the HIV-infected population, they are not devoid of adverse effects, including endocrine dysfunction. Physicians caring for HIV-infected patients should be knowledgeable and exercise a high index of suspicion for the diagnosis of endocrine abnormalities, and in particular be aware of those that can be life threatening. Endocrine evaluation should follow the same strategies as in the general population, including prevention, early detection, and treatment.

Citations

Citations to this article as recorded by  

• Tuberculosis and diabetes mellitus comorbidity in an adult Ugandan population
  Davis Kibirige, Irene Andia-Biraro, Ronald Olum, Susan Adakun, Stella Zawedde-Muyanja, Christine Sekaggya-Wiltshire, Ivan Kimuli
  BMC Infectious Diseases.2024;[Epub]     CrossRef
• Morphometric analysis of adrenal gland in people living with human immunodeficiency virus
  Ayşe Gül Kabakcı, Ferit Kuşcu, Ferhat Can Pişkin, Yeşim Taşova, Memduha Gülhal Bozkır
  Cukurova Medical Journal.2024; 49(1): 159.     CrossRef
• Hypogonadism among HIV-positive men who have sex with men in Taiwan: Prevalence and associated factors
  Kuan-Yu Lin, Hsin-Yun Sun, Wang-Da Liu, Chi-Ying Lin, Ming-Jui Tsai, Yu-Chung Chuang, Hung-Yuan Li, Jou-Wei Lin, Wen-Chun Liu, Pei-Ying Wu, Ling-Ya Chen, Hsi-Yen Chang, Yu-Zhen Luo, Yi-Ting Chen, Guei-Chi Li, Shyang-Rong Shih, Chien-Ching Hung
  Journal of Microbiology, Immunology and Infection.2024; 57(5): 739.     CrossRef
• Review of organ damage from COVID and Long COVID: a disease with a spectrum of pathology
  Andrew G. Ewing, Spela Salamon, Etheresia Pretorius, David Joffe, Greta Fox, Stephane Bilodeau, Yaneer Bar-Yam
  Medical Review.2024;[Epub]     CrossRef
• Prevalence and correlates of hypertension, diabetes, and cancer among HIV-infected adults in Guinea: Insights for healthcare policy in Sub-Saharan Africa
  Dramé Aly, Cissé Mohamed, Jones Jeb
  Journal of AIDS and HIV Research.2024; 16(1): 9.     CrossRef
• Cardiac tamponade in people living with HIV: a systematic review of case reports and case series
  Amirreza Keyvanfar, Hanieh Najafiarab, Sepehr Ramezani, Shabnam Tehrani
  BMC Infectious Diseases.2024;[Epub]     CrossRef
• Effect of highly-active antiretroviral therapy on neuroendocrine regulation of immunogenesis in HIV-infected children
  B. A. Bakhmetyev, G. A. Bocharov, S. Ya. Zverev, N. S. Kalashnikova
  Russian Journal of Immunology.2024; 27(3): 723.     CrossRef
• Low Levels of Cortisol are Associated with HIV Infection in Older People: A Hormonal Substudy in the OVER50 Cohort
  Diana Hernandez-Sanchez, Silvia Martinez-Couselo, Manel Puig-Domingo, Ana Martinez, Sandra Gonzalez, Patricia Echeverria, Anna Bonjoch, Jordi Puig, Eugenia Negredo
  Current HIV Research.2024; 22(5): 318.     CrossRef
• Viruses and Endocrine Diseases
  Magloire Pandoua Nekoua, Cyril Debuysschere, Inès Vergez, Corentin Morvan, Chaldam Jespere Mbani, Famara Sane, Enagnon Kazali Alidjinou, Didier Hober
  Microorganisms.2023; 11(2): 361.     CrossRef
• Assessment of adrenal cortex function in a group of HIV infected patients in sub-Saharan-Africa
  Sida Ghislaine Biwole, Boli Anne Ongmeb, Etoga Martine Claude Etoa, Charly Feutseu, Yefou Mesmin Dehayem, Mekobe Francine Mendane, Samba Esther Mbono, Armel Quentin Essomba, Manga Jean Arnaud Ndi, Moor Vicky Ama, Eugene Sobngwi, Jean Claude Mbanya
  Journal of Diabetes and Endocrinology.2023; 13(1): 1.     CrossRef
• Newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes mellitus in a human immunodeficiency virus-infected patient with antiretroviral therapy-induced immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome: a case report
  Min-ChunYeh, Han-Chuan Chuang, Shuen-Fu Weng, Chung-Huei Hsu, Chen-Ling Huang, Yu-Pei Lin, Yan-Yu Lin, Yu-Shan Hsieh
  BMC Infectious Diseases.2023;[Epub]     CrossRef
• Allopregnanolone and neuroHIV: Potential benefits of neuroendocrine modulation in the era of antiretroviral therapy
  Mohammed F. Salahuddin, Alaa N. Qrareya, Fakhri Mahdi, Emaya Moss, Nicholas S. Akins, Jing Li, Hoang V. Le, Jason J. Paris
  Journal of Neuroendocrinology.2022;[Epub]     CrossRef
• HIV in Primary Care: Case Study of Common Chronic Comorbidities
  Melody Wilkinson, Pam Biernacki, Joyce Knestrick
  The Journal for Nurse Practitioners.2022; 18(5): 525.     CrossRef
• The crucial role of prolactin-lactogenic hormone in Covid-19
  Hayder M. Al-Kuraishy, Ali I. Al-Gareeb, Monica Butnariu, Gaber El-Saber Batiha
  Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry.2022; 477(5): 1381.     CrossRef
• Lower bone density and microarchitecture alterations in HIV‐infected Brazilian men aged 50 years and older are associated with estradiol levels
  Felipe P. Oliveira, Luis F. C. Lima, Francisco de Paula Paranhos Neto, Laura M. C. de Mendonça, Annie Schtscherbyna, Luiz A. A. de Lima, Branca A. Fonseca, Miguel Madeira, Ronir R. Luiz, Leonardo V. Neto, Maria L. F. Farias, Elizabeth S. Machado
  Clinical Endocrinology.2022; 97(1): 142.     CrossRef
• The impact of dolutegravir‐based combination antiretroviral therapy on the spermatozoa and fertility parameters of men living with human immunodeficiency virus
  Edidiong N. Akang, Olufunke O. Dosumu, Ann A. Ogbenna, Utom‐obong U. Akpan, Jane C. Ezeukwu, Mayowa O. Odofin, Ademola A. Oremosu, Alani S. Akanmu
  Andrologia.2022;[Epub]     CrossRef
• Toxic Metals and Non-Communicable Diseases in HIV Population: A Systematic Review
  Opeyemi M. Folorunso, Chiara Frazzoli, Ifeyinwa Chijioke-Nwauche, Beatrice Bocca, Orish E. Orisakwe
  Medicina.2021; 57(5): 492.     CrossRef
• Propensity score matching evaluation of psychological stress and hair cortisol among people living with HIV in China
  Xu Chen, Shuaifeng Liu, Chengbo Zeng, Xiaoming Li, Shan Qiao, Riying Lv, Zhiyong Shen
  Scientific Reports.2021;[Epub]     CrossRef
• Adrenal insufficiency in HIV/AIDS: a review
  Simon Mifsud, Zachary Gauci, Mark Gruppetta, Charles Mallia Azzopardi, Stephen Fava
  Expert Review of Endocrinology & Metabolism.2021; 16(6): 351.     CrossRef
• REPRODUCTIVE DISORDERS AND THEIR PATHOGENETIC MECHANISMS IN WOMEN WITH HIV
  O. Ya. Leshchenko, E. V. Genich
  HIV Infection and Immunosuppressive Disorders.2020; 11(4): 20.     CrossRef
• A case of acanthosis nigricans in a HIV-infected patient
  Alessandra Iacovelli, Ivano Mezzaroma, Marcello Di Paolo, Giuseppe Soda, Ludovica De Vincentiis, Paolo Palange
  BMC Infectious Diseases.2020;[Epub]     CrossRef
• Clinically Relevant Interactions between Atypical Antipsychotics and Anti-Infective Agents
  Edoardo Spina, Maria Antonietta Barbieri, Giuseppe Cicala, Jose de Leon
  Pharmaceuticals.2020; 13(12): 439.     CrossRef